CHAPTER 1

Research may be defined as documented prose work. This prose work means organized analysis of the subject based on borrowed materials with suitable acknowledgment and consultation in the main body of the paper. Simply research is one of the ways to find answers to your questions. The research is a human activity based on intellectual investigation and aimed at discovering, interpreting, and revising human knowledge on different aspects of the world. Research can use the scientific method, but need not do so.

We undertake research when we wish to explore an idea, probe an issue, solve a problem, or make an argument that compels us to turn to outside help. We then seek out, investigate, and use materials beyond our personal resources. The findings and conclusions of such an inquiry appear in the research paper. The term research paper/work describes a presentation of student research that may be in a printed, an electronic, or a multimedia format

The research paper/work is generally based on primary research, secondary research, or a combination of the two. Primary research is the study of a subject through firsthand observation and investigation, such as analyzing a literary or historical text, a film, or a performance; conducting a survey or an interview; or carrying out a laboratory experiment. Primary sources include statistical data, historical documents, and works of literature or art. Secondary research is the examination of studies that other researchers have made of a subject. Examples of secondary sources are books and articles about political issues, historical events, scientific debates, or literary works.

Most academic papers/works depend at least partly on secondary research. No matter what your subject of study, learning to investigate, review, and productively use information, ideas, and opinions of other researchers will play a major role in your development as a student. The sorts of activities that constitute a research paper—identifying, locating, assessing, and assimilating others' research and then developing and expressing your own ideas clearly and persuasively—are at the center of the educational experience.

Research increases the knowledge and understanding of a subject. Sometimes research will confirm your ideas and opinions; some-times it will challenge and modify them. But almost always it will help to shape your thinking. Unless your supervisor/teacher specifically directs you otherwise, a research paper should not merely review publications and extract a series of quotations from them. Rather, you should look for sources that provide new information, that help-fully survey the various positions already taken on a specific subject, that lend authority to your viewpoint, that expand or nuance your ideas, that offer methods or modes of thought you can apply to new data or subjects, or that furnish negative examples against which you wish to argue. As you use and scrupulously acknowledge sources, however, always remember that the main purpose of doing research is not to summarize the work of others but to assimilate and to build on it and to arrive at your own understanding of the subject.

Any publication like this cannot present all the profitable ways of doing research. Because this “Doing Research and Referencing: Based on MLA …” emphasizes the mechanics of preparing effective papers, it may give you the mistaken impression that the process of researching and writing a research paper follows a fixed pattern. The truth is that different paths can and do lead to successful research papers. Some researchers may pursue a more or less standard sequence of steps, but others may find themselves working less sequentially. In addition, certain projects lend them-selves to a standard approach, whereas others may call for different strategies. Keeping in mind that researchers and projects differ, this compiled publication discusses activities that nearly all writers of research papers perform, such as selecting a suitable topic, conducting research, compiling a working bibliography etc.

Actually, a research paper is an adventure, an intellectual adventure rather like solving a mystery: it is a form of exploration that leads to discoveries that are new—at least to you if not to others. The mechanics of the research paper, important though they are, should never override the intellectual challenge of pursuing a question that interests you (and ultimately your reader). This quest or search should guide your research and your writing. Even though you are just learning how to prepare a research paper, you may still experience some of the excitement of pursuing and developing ideas that is one of the great satisfactions of research and scholarship.

Skills derived from preparing research papers are by no means just academic. Many reports and proposals required in business, government, and other professions similarly rely on secondary research. Learning how to write a research paper, then, can help prepare you for assignments in your professional career. It is difficult to think of any profession that would not require you to consult sources of information about a specific subject, to combine this information with your ideas, and to present your thoughts, findings, and conclusions effectively.

A research paper is a form of written communication. Like other kinds of nonfiction writing—letters, memos, reports, essays, articles, books—it should present information and ideas clearly and effectively. You should not let the mechanics of gathering source materials, taking notes, and documenting sources make you forget to apply the knowledge and skills you have acquired through previous writing experiences.

This Doing Research and Referencing: Based on MLA 6th Edition is a guide for the preparation of research papers / works. It is not a book about expository writing. Although you must fully document the facts and opinions you draw from your research, the documentation should only support your statements and provide concise information about the sources cited; it should not over-shadow your own ideas or distract the reader from them.

Different courses and different supervisor/teachers offer widely varying degrees of freedom to students selecting topics for research papers. The supervisor/teacher of a course in a specific discipline (e.g., art, history, literature, science) may supply a list of topics from which to choose or may, more generally, require that the paper relate to an important aspect of the course. If you are given the latter option, review course readings and class notes to find topics that particularly interest you. Discuss possibilities with other students and with your supervisor/teacher. If your choice is limited to a set list of topics, you will probably still need to decide which aspect of a topic to explore or which approach to use.

In a writing class, you may have more freedom to select a topic. The supervisor/teacher may assign a general problem that can generate many kinds of responses—for example, you might be asked to choose a modern invention and show what benefits and problems it has brought about. If you have complete freedom to choose a topic, consider using a personal interest that lends itself to research (e.g., education, the environment, new technologies, nutrition, politics.) or an issue that has recently generated public interest or controversy (e.g., cloning, global warming, terrorism).

Teachers understand the importance of choosing an appropriate topic for a research paper. When freedom of choice is permitted, students are commonly required to submit topics to the supervisor/teacher for approval early in the research project.

As you choose a topic, remember the time allotted to you and the expected length of the research paper. "International politics in the modern age" would obviously be too broad a subject for a ten-page term paper. You may prefer to begin with a fairly general topic and then to refine it, by thought and research, into a more specific one that can be fully explored. Try to narrow your topic by focusing on an aspect of the subject or an approach to it. A student initially interested in the general subject of "violence in the media" might decide, after careful thought and reading, to write on "the effects of cartoon violence on preschool children." Likewise, an interest in architecture could lead to a focus on the design and construction of domes, which could in turn be narrowed to a comparison between the ancient Roman dome and the Byzantine dome.

Preliminary reading is essential as you evaluate and refine topics. Consult, in print or electronic form, general reference works, such as encyclopedias, as well as articles and books in the areas you are considering. You can also refine your topic by doing subject searches in reference databases and in online catalogs and through Internet search tools Such preliminary reading and searches will also let you know if enough work has been done on the subject to permit adequate research and whether the pertinent source materials are readily accessible.

Selecting an appropriate topic is seldom a simple matter. Even after you discover a subject that attracts your interest, you may well find yourself revising your choice, modifying your approach, or changing topics altogether after you have begun research.

The library will generally be your most reliable guide as you conduct research for papers that draw on the published work of experts. Librarians evaluate resources for authority and quality before acquiring them for use in research. You should therefore become thoroughly acquainted with the libraries available to you and take full advantage of the resources and services they provide on-site and over the Internet.

The modern academic library typically offers resources in print and electronic forms and in other non print media (e.g., films, sound recordings), as well as computer services, such as word processing, high-quality printers, and access to the Internet. Whereas some important resources are available only in the library building (e.g., most books and other publications solely in print form, microfilm materials, special collections), your library probably provides a number of electronic resources, such as bibliographic and full-text data-bases, that are accessible not only through computer terminals in the library but also over the Internet through the library's Web site.

Most academic libraries have programs of orientation and instruction to meet the needs of all students, from beginning researchers to graduate students. The library's Web site likely contains scheduling information on such programmes as well as descriptions of available resources and services.

Nearly all public and academic libraries have desks staffed by professional reference librarians who can tell you about available instructional programs and help you locate sources. Consulting a librarian at key points in your research may save you considerable time and effort.

Touring or reading about your library will reveal the many important sources of information it makes available to researchers. Information sources fall into four general categories.

The library typically houses a vast number of books as well as similar publications such as pamphlets and perhaps dissertations. Books are essential sources for many projects, and some supervisor/teachers require that students use books—in addition to articles, Internet sites, and other materials—during research. Relatively few books are available electronically over the Internet, but you can usually borrow most books from the library. A common exception is the library's collection of reference works (e.g. indexes, bibliographies, abstracts, statistical resources and references works). Although reference works usually cannot be borrowed, many important ones are likely available to you through the library's Web site. e.g

The library gives access to numerous articles and similar writings (e.g., reviews, editorials) published in print periodicals such as scholarly journals, newspapers, and magazines. (See 5.7 on citing articles and other publications in print periodicals in the list of works cited.)

Most libraries also provide non-print sources such as sound recordings and video recordings and possibly also unpublished writings (e.g., manuscripts or private letters in special collections). (See 5.8 on citing these sources in the list of works cited.)

Your library probably offers reference works in electronic form and full-text databases and may also recommend useful Internet sites. Your library may also subscribe to journals available only in electronic form. e.g. http://www.gcu.edu.pk/library/S_FullJourIP.htm. (See also 5.9 on citing electronic sources in the list of works cited.)

Most academic libraries provide an online central information system to guide students and faculty members to research sources. The system ordinarily includes

· The library's catalog of holdings (books, periodicals, electronic sources, audiovisual materials, CD-Roms etc.(e.g. http://libraryportal.lums.edu.pk/)

· Bibliographic databases, such as Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature, Business Periodicals Index, Humanities Index, Social Sciences Index, and General Science Index

· Other electronic resources, including reference works e.g. http://www.gcu.edu.pk/library/E_Ref.htm (see also 1.4.4), full-text databases to which the library subscribes e.g. http://www.digitallibrary.edu.pk/Resources.php (see also 1.4.6), and recommended Internet sites to which the library provides links. (e.g. http://www.gcu.edu.pk/library/S_FullJourOA.htm. see also1.4.8)

The central information system might also be part of a network linking the catalogs of a number of libraries. For instance, the system in your institution might permit you to search the holdings of local public libraries or of other universities. If your library is part of a network you may be able to locate sources recorded in the catalogs of thou-sands of other libraries. The central information system (e.g. http://www.thetowertech.com/gculms/search.asp) has almost completely replaced the card catalog in academic libraries. Card catalogs are sometimes still used for materials such as special collections that have not yet been incorporated into the information system.)

A useful way to begin a research project is to consult relevant reference works. Some reference works, like indexes and bibliographies, categorize research materials by subject and provide data that permit you to locate sources—author, title, date of publication etc. Other reference works, like encyclopedias, dictionaries, and biographical sources, give basic information about subjects. This section provides a brief introduction to the range of general and specialized reference works you should know about, many of which are available in print and electronic forms.

Indexes guide you to material in newspapers, magazines, and journals as well as to writings in book collections.

· The New York Times Index, The Wall Street Journal Index, The Washington Post Index and GCU Newspapers Index list articles in selected newspapers.

· Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature indexes the contents of popular magazines.

· Most subject areas have their own specialized indexes, such as Art Index, Business Periodicals Index, Education Index, General Science Index, Humanities Index, Philosopher's Index, and Social Sciences Index.

Collections of abstracts present summaries of journal articles and other literature.

Guides to research seek to direct you to the most important sources of information and scholarship in the area you are researching. Unlike indexes, bibliographies, and collections of abstracts, which tend to strive for comprehensiveness and objectivity in presenting information, guides to research are usually selective and evaluative.

Dictionaries are alphabetically arranged works that provide information, usually in concise form, about words or topics.

Encyclopedias are works, usually alphabetically arranged, that give introductory information about subjects.

Yearbooks present information about specific years in the past. Examples are The Americana Annual, Britannica Book of the Year, and The Europa Yearbook.

Almanacs are annual publications containing data, especially statistics, about many subjects. Examples are The World Almanac and Book of Facts and The World Factbook.

Atlases are collections of maps. The Times Atlas of the World covers regions and nations of the entire world.

Gazetteers provide geographic information. Examples are The Columbia Gazetteer of the World and Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary. Recently Gazetteers of different cities of Pakistan have been published by Sang-e-meal publishers Lahore.

Print. Print works may be located in a reference room. General reference books, like dictionaries, encyclopedias, biographical sources, yearbooks, atlases, and gazetteers, may all be shelved together in one place, while specialized reference books may be grouped according to subject area—biology, business, literature., psychology, and so forth. The volumes of reference works published annually—indexes, bibliographies, and abstracts collections—are likely lined up in chronological order.

Electronic. Reference works available as electronic databases are usually online or on CD-ROM. Searching and drawing material from the library's databases can be done in the library building and probably from outside as well, over the Internet. Print versus electronic. Online and CD-ROM databases have a number of advantages over print versions of reference works.

Every field of study has standard reference works. One such work is the MLA International Bibliography, which lists studies in the fields of language and literature. This work is published in print and electronic formats.

Print. The printed library edition of this work is published annually in two clothbound books. The first contains listings in five areas: literature in English, literature in other languages, linguistics, general literature and related topics, and folklore. The second book provides a subject index to the first.

Electronic. The MLA International Bibliography is also published in online and CD-ROM versions, which contain all citations published in annual volumes of the bibliography from 1963 to the present. Each vendor's system has help screens to guide you through its software interface.

Author searches. By entering the name of a scholar, you can obtain a list of the titles by the author that are collected in the data-base. For example, if you want to know what studies by the writer Deborah Tannen have been published in the fields covered by this bibliography, you can enter her name and receive a list of titles.

· Title searches. If you know only the title of a work—like the essay "Black Matter(s)" or the book Talking Voices—you can call forth complete bibliographic information about the work from the data-base by entering the title. If you remember only part of the title (e.g., "city"), you can request a listing of all titles containing that term (e.g., "Fun City: TV's Urban Situation Comedies of the 1990s," "The City in Modern Polish and Hungarian Poetry," "The London Scene: City and Court," "Japanese Adolescent Speech Styles in Hiroshima City: An Ethnographic Study").

· Subject searches. Since every work added to this bibliography is accompanied by at least one descriptor—a term that describes the work's subject matter—you can also search the database by subject. Thus, if you ask for studies that discuss, for instance, "detective fiction," the system will search through its files and present you with all titles that have "detective fiction" as a descriptor. If you want studies of Toni Morrison's novels, you can search for records with "Toni Morrison" as a descriptor.

· Expanded searches. All databases (e.g like the MLA International Bibliography) also permit you to expand or narrow your searches use-fully. While you are trying to decide on a topic, you may want to do expanded searches to get a broad sense of possibilities. An expanded subject search of this database can be particularly helpful when you are developing a suitable research topic. If you have a general idea that you want to write on detective fiction, you can find related subjects by entering the word "

Pakistan

" in your expanded subject search. The following is a sampling of the related topics you will receive, with links to relevant bibliographic listings:

Also useful for expanded searches is the truncation (or wild card) feature. By using a truncated, or shortened, term—for example, a word root—followed by an asterisk (or the symbols : or $, depending on the vendor's software interface), you can retrieve all variants of it. If you wish, for instance, to do a paper on feminism but cannot decide what aspect to focus on, you can enter as a search term "femini*" and receive records on, among other subjects, "feminine discourse," "femininity," "feminist literary theory and criticism," "feminist movement," and "feminist writers."

· Boolean searches. Like all other databases the electronic MLA International Bibliography also permits searching according to Boolean logic—named after the nineteenth-century British mathematician and logician George Boole. In this kind of searching, you customize your search request with the operators and, or, and not (see fig. 1). For example, you can use the Boolean operator or to expand your search. The following search expression will furnish

more titles than either "Arthur Conan Doyle" or "Sherlock Holmes" by itself would:

If you want to perform narrower searches, the Boolean operators not and “and” can limit the field of titles accessed. If you are interested in finding studies on, say, versions of the story of Othello other than Shakespeare's, enter the following:

Or if you would like to identify studios that compare Shakespeare's play with Othello, Verdi's operatic adaptation of it, keying the following rather than just "Othello" will result in a shorter, more focused list of sources:

· Other advanced searches. The MLA International Bibliography in its electronic versions offers other ways to restrict your search. It allows you to retrieve titles from a single publication source—for instance, articles on Othello that have appeared in Shakespeare Quarterly over the last several decades. The database also allows you to limit your search according to language of publication (e.g., Japanese, Spanish), publication type (e.g., book, journal article), and publication year. You can obtain a list, for example, of books on Goethe's Faust that were written in German and published in 2000 or later.

The database allows you to print out and download bibliographic information. It also gives you a choice of how to view, print, or download data. The display style varies among the interfaces through which the MLA International Bibliography is offered. Figures 2 and 3 present two ways in which the bibliographic information may appear. The complete record (fig 2) includes title, author, source, international standard serial number (ISSN), language of publication, publication type, publication year, subject descriptors, sequence number, update code, and accession number. The shortened citation (fig. 3) usually gives only title, author, and source.

In the line of fire: a memoir/ Pervez Musharraf.

LC Control No.:	2006050489
Type of Material:	Book (Print, Microform, Electronic, etc.)
Personal Name:	Musharraf, Pervez.
Main Title:	In *the* *line* of *fire* : a memoir / Pervez Musharraf.
Published/Created:	New York : Free Press, c2006.
Description:	xii, 354 p., [16] p. of plates : ill., maps ; 24 cm.
ISBN:	0743283449
	9780743283441
Contents:	Face-to-face with terror -- Train to Pakistan -- Settling in Karachi -- Turkey : *the* formative years -- Home -- Leaving *the* nest ---*The* potter’s wheel -- Into *the* *fire* -- Life in *the* *fire* -- Living through *the* dreadful decade -- From chief to chief executive ---*The* Kargil conflict -- Plan to Pakistan ---*The* conspiracy ---*The* countercoup -- Anatomy of suicide -- Pakistan first ---*The* quest for democracy -- Putting *the* system right -- Kick-starting *the* economy -- One day that changed *the* world -- Omar and Osama ---*The* war comes to Pakistan -- Manhunt -- Tightening *the* noose -- Al Qaeda in *the* mountains ---*The* symbiosis of terrorism and religion -- Nuclear proliferation -- International diplomacy ---*The* social sector ---*The* emancipation of women ---*The* soft image of Pakistan -- Leadership on trial : *the* earthquake -- Reflections.
Notes:	Includes index.
Subjects:	Musharraf, *Pervez.*
	Presidents--Pakistan--Biography.
	Pakistan--Politics and government--1988-
LC Classification:	DS389.22.M87 A3 2006
Dewey Class No.:	954.9105/3 22
Other System No.:	(OCoLC)ocm70778393
Geographic Area Code:	a-pk---
Quality Code:	Pcc
Electronic File Information:	Publisher description http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0701/2006050489-d.html
Links:	Publisher description
CALL NUMBER:	DS389.22.M87 A3 2006 (LOC), 954.91053 (DDC)
	Copy 1

Fig. 2. A complete citation from a Library of Congress (LoC) bibliographic database.

In the line of fire: a memoir/ Pervez Musharraf

LC Control No.:	2006050489
Type of Material:	Book (Print, Microform, Electronic, etc.)
Personal Name:	Musharraf, *Pervez.*
Main Title:	In *the* *line* of *fire* : a memoir / Pervez Musharraf.
Published/Created:	New York : Free Press, c2006.
Description:	xii, 354 p., [16] p. of plates : ill., maps ; 24 cm.
ISBN:	0743283449
	9780743283441
Links:	Publisher description
CALL NUMBER:	DS389.22.M87 A3 2006 (LOC), 954.91053 (DDC)
	Copy 1

The advantage of the short form is that it saves time and space while providing the information necessary for locating the material and for creating a preliminary entry for your works-cited list. You can easily convert the bibliographic data in figure 3 to MLA documentation style.

Tannen, Deborah. "Gender in Research on Language: Researching Gender Related Patterns in Classroom Discourse." TESOL Quarterly 30 (1996): 341-44.

An important part of a library's central information system is the online catalog of the holdings known as OPAC. There is no standard system for online catalogs. Systems differ, for example, in how users access information and in what appears on the screen. All systems, however, permit searching.

When using an online catalog, you can locate a work in a number of ways. The most common are by author, by title, and by subject.

· Author searches. If you enter the author's full name—whether a personal name (e.g., Maxine Hong Kingston) or a corporate name (e.g., Pakistan.Senate)—the screen displays a list of all the works the library has by that author. If you know only an author's last name (e.g., Kingston), you can obtain a list of all authors with that last name.

· Title searches. Entering the title produces a list of all works the library has with that title. The online catalog contains not only book titles but also titles of other works in the system, including journals (e.g., Psychology and Marketing), databases (e.g.,EBSCO), and book series. If you enter the name of a book series, such as "Approaches to Teaching World Literature", you will receive a list of all book titles in the series. If you know only the beginning of a title—for example, only Advertising, Competition, instead of Advertising, Competition, and Public Policy: A Simulation Study—you can enter what you know, and the screen will display all titles that begin with those words.

· Subject heading searches. If you have no author or title in mind, you can enter a subject heading to produce a list of works about the subject. Most academic libraries exclusively use the subject headings that appear in the Library of Congress Subject Headings and Sear’s List of Subject Headings. Many headings have more specific subheadings. For example, you can enter "Mass media and the environment" and receive a list of all works assigned that general subject heading, or you can obtain a more specialized list by entering one of the following:

Information Agreements, Competition, and Efficiency Conglomerate Mergers and Market Competition

A subject heading search using the keyword "competition" will produce the titles of all works whose subject descriptions include the word, such as Europe versus America? Contradictions of Imperialism, one of whose subject headings is "Competition, International," or Unequal Freedoms: The Global Market as an Ethical System, one of whose subject headings is "Competition—Moral and ethical aspects."

· Boolean searches. Online catalogs also typically permit searching according to Boolean logic—that is, using the operators and, or, and not. For instance, suppose you are interested in studies on the relation between nutrition and cancer. A search using "nutrition" alone or "cancer" alone would yield a list of all works having any-thing to do with the subject of each search, and you would have to pick out the items dealing with the two subjects together. In contrast, a Boolean search using "nutrition and cancer" excludes all works not about both subjects. Likewise, if you want to see which authors besides Goethe wrote about the Faust theme, you can enter "Faust not Goethe." In addition to narrowing lists of titles, Boolean searching is useful for expanding them. For example, if you wish to research solar heating, you night enter "solar or sun and heating," which will produce more titles than would just "solar and heating." (On using Boolean logic in searching a reference database)

· Other advanced searches. Online catalogs allow you to limit your search in various ways. You may ask for titles published during a certain range of years (e.g., 2000 to the present) or titles located only in one specific part of your library (e.g., the main collection). You may be able, too, to limit your search to specific media (e.g., books, serials, electronic publications, archives, manuscripts, musical scores, films, video or sound recordings). This feature will permit you, say, to request a list of books that were published in Spanish between 1990 and 2000 about cave paintings in Spain, or it will let you find out if your library has any video recordings about mythology or the Civil War.

When you access a title, the screen shows something like the example in figure 4. The top lines of the screen image contain the author's name (Beg, Muhammad Abdul Jabbar.), the full title of the book (Brief lives of the companions of prophet Muhammad : the Saḥābah in Islamic history (including the first four caliphs 632-60AD), and complete publication information (the book was published by Cambridge : M.A.J. Beg, 2003.). Then follows the call number. The next section tells you that the library possesses one copy of the work, which is located on an open shelf. The following lines describe the physical characteristics of the book (it has 112 pages and illustrations 21 centimeters in height); indicate that it contains a bibliography and an index; show the subject headings under which the book is cataloged; and give the international standard book numbers (ISBNs) for the cloth and paperback versions of the book.

For the purposes of researching and writing your paper, you normally will not use most of the information that appears in the catalog entry. You need to know the call number, of course, to locate the work in the library. (DDC classes: 000 -999) and, for your paper's works-cited list, you also need to know the author, title, and full publication information (see ch. 5 on information needed for compiling the list of works cited).

McCann, Sean. Gumshoe

America

: Hard-Boiled Crime Fiction and the Rise and Fall of New Deal Liberalism. Durham: Duke UP, 2000.

Transcribe this information carefully. Online catalog systems typically give the option of printing out or downloading the bibliographic data displayed on the screen. This feature saves you the effort of copying the information and eliminates the possibility of transcription errors.

You should, of course, verify the information you derive from the catalog against the source itself; errors some-times occur during cataloging.

The call numbers in your library probably follow one of two systems of classification: the Library of Congress system or the Dewey Decimal Classification System. Learning your library's system will not only help you to find works and know their contents from their call numbers but also guide you to sections of the library in which to browse.

The Library of Congress system (LoC) divides books into twenty major groups:

The library catalog normally indicates not only the call number for a title but also the section in which to find the work, whether in the main collection or in a different locations. It may also indicate if a title is checked out, missing, at the bindery, or on order. Check with the circulation desk to see if it is possible to recall or search for a missing hook.

· Open shelves and closed stacks. Most library holdings are kept on open shelves, to which the public has direct access. To obtain a work in closed stacks, you usually have to present a call slip to a library staff member, who will locate the work for you.

· Sections for reserved works and reference works. If the word Reserved appears in a catalog entry, it indicates that the work is required in a course and stored in a special section, at the supervisor/teacher's request, so that the work may not be borrowed but stays available for students in the course. A work shelved in the reference section, designated in the catalog entry by R or Ref, is too widely used to be borrowed and thus must also remain in the library.

· Other sections. Libraries also commonly set aside areas for other types of materials—current periodicals, pamphlets, and nonprint materials, like CD-ROMs, films, and audio and video recordings. Some libraries have additional special collections, such as rare books or government documents, which are similarly kept separate from the main collection.

Modern academic libraries subscribe to and make generally avail-able a wide variety of databases: not only those containing bibliographic citations and abstracts (see 1.4.4a), which guide researchers to relevant sources, but also full-text databases, which offer complete texts of many sources. Your library likely subscribes to full‑

text databases of reference works and other book-length texts as well as of articles from periodicals (newspapers, magazines, scholarly journals). Some of these databases may be limited to use in the library, but many probably can also be accessed from outside, through the library's Web site. Virtually all full-text databases are searchable by author, title, and subject and through more sophisticated strategies (e.g., keyword searching, Boolean searching). as discussed in 1.4.4d and 1.4.5a.

· Online reference works to which libraries typically subscribe include The Oxford English Dictionary, The New Encyclopedia Britannica, American National Biography, and Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

· Other book-length texts may also be available to you through library subscriptions. The Higher Education Commission of Pakistan Digital Library Project may be accessed online and provides more than 23000 journals and more than 6000 e-books access of the different academic subjects taught in public and private universities of Pakistan (HEC Digital Library Project http://www.digitallibrary.edu.pk) which is a collection of nearly 23000 journals and more than 6000 full texts books of renowned publishers like Taylor and Francis, CUP, OUP, John Willey, MIT Press etc.

Many full-text databases to which academic libraries subscribe comprise articles from periodicals—newspapers, magazines, and especially scholarly journals.

· Major Newspapers. The major newspapers are available individually through library subscription.

· Major scholarly journal publishers—those that issue numerous journals, often in different fields—permit libraries to subscribe to databases containing all journals that each press publishes. Such publishers include Academic Press, Springer, American Chemical Society, American Mathematical Society, Cambridge University Press, Elsevier, Oxford University Press, University of Chicago Press, and Wiley. Thus, a subscription to, for example, American Mathematical

Society Journals gives access to all journals published by that society.

· A scholarly journal archive collects articles from journals published by different presses. JSTOR, for instance, is a collection of articles from over one hundred scholarly journals in such fields as the humanities, the social sciences, the natural sciences, and business.

Information service companies, such as EBSCO and Lexis-Nexis, amass huge numbers of bibliographic and full-text materials, organize these materials into different kinds of databases, and offer these databases, often in different combinations, by subscription to academic libraries. Some typical packages of databases follow:

· EBSCO. Your library may subscribe to a number of EBSCO's bibliographic databases as well as to its full-text databases, such as Academic Search Premier (articles from over three thousand scholarly publications in all major disciplines), Business Source Premier (articles from over two thousand scholarly business journals), Health Source (articles from over five hundred scholarly medical journals), Newspaper Source (articles from some two hundred United States and international newspapers), and Master file Premier (articles from nearly two thousand periodicals on a variety of subjects, including general reference, business, and health).

· Lexis-Nexis. Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, one of many products and services provided by this company, collects material from over five thousand publications and organizes information under the following topics: news, business, legal research, medicine, and general reference.

Most documents in databases were previously or simultaneously published in print form. Therefore, most bibliographic citations of database sources begin with the publication information the data-base supplies for the print version of the source (see 5.9.1). The citation then continues with facts about the electronic publication. Subscription databases vary considerably in the amount and kind of electronic publication information they furnish, and bibliographic citations of these sources vary accordingly. For some sources, a URL (uniform resource locator, or network address) of the specific document is available; for others, a URL of only a search page must be given; and for still others, no URL can be cited.

· URL of specific document. Some databases connect you to an Internet site, give relatively short and logical URLs for each document, and even provide full documentation information for each document. For example, the information in figure 5 appears at the end of an entry in the electronic database for American National Biography. Such information makes it easy to create a bibliographic entry for the source using MLA style

Malleck, Daniel J. ^"Leavitt, Mary Greenleaf Clement." American National Biography Online. Oxford UP, 2000. Amer. Council of Learned Secs. 14 Jan. 2002 <http://www.anb.org/articles/15-00398.html>.

· URL of search page. Sometimes the URL of a document is so long and complicated that reproducing it would invite transcription Errors or would at least cause inconvenience.

In such instances, it is preferable to give instead the URL of the site's search page, if such a page exists. Once there, the reader can readily access the document by keying in other publication facts recorded in the citation (e.g., author's name. title). For example, JSTOR assigns the following URL to a 1998 article by Nancy Tolson in African American Review:

http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=1062-4783%28199821%2932 % 3A1%3C9%3AM BATRO%3 E2.0. C0%3 82-2

Rather than try to reproduce such a LJRL, simply give the URL of the database's search page.

Tolson, Nancy. "Making Books Available: The Role of Early Libraries, Librarians, and Booksellers in the Promotion of African American Children's Literature." African American Review 32 (1998): 9-16. JSTOR. 1 Oct. 2006 <http://www.jstor.org/search>.

· No URL. Some database subscription services assign no apparent URLs to documents or assign LJRLs that are unique to the sub-scribing institution or to the current research session. Such URLs are useless to the general reader. For example, an article that Mirza Umar K and others published in 2007 in Renewable & Sustainable Energy reviews is included in EbscoHost database Academic Search premier. When you access this article from the PG Library, GC University Lahore, you find that its URL contains over 130 characters and concludes with the suffix " f62efa0f3e46%40SRCSM1" which is unique to this library system. Consequently, the URL of the article has no value for anyone without access to the system and has virtually no value for anyone who does, for you can locate the article much more easily by using the search page of the data-base than by typing in the URL. When writing the bibliographic citation for this source, then you may conclude not with the URL of the document but rather with the URL of the home page of the service, if you know it, or you may simply end with the date of access (see 5.9.7):

Mirza, Umar K.; Ahmad, Nasir; Majeed, Tariq; Harijan, Khanji. “Wind energy development in

Pakistan

”. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 11 (2007): 2179-90. GCU PG Library, Lahroe. 12 August. 2007 < http://search.epnet.com/>

Besides knowing about the print and non print materials discussed above, you should become familiar with the library's other resources and services.

Microform designates printed matter greatly reduced in size by microphotography; common types are microfilm, microfiche, and microcard. Libraries use microforms to store such materials as back copies of periodicals (newspapers, magazines, scholarly journals) and rare books. Microforms are usually kept in a special section of the library. To use them, you need a reader that magnifies them; a special photocopier can reproduce microform pages..

Many libraries have a special section devoted to audio recordings (e.g., compact discs, audiotapes, long-playing records), video recordings (e.g., on VHS or DVD), and multimedia materials. These resources are generally kept in closed stacks and used only in the library, although there may be exceptions, such as for use in the classroom.

Photocopying machines are typically located at various places in the library, as are computer terminals that give access to the central catalog and other databases and to the Internet. Your university may also permit students to borrow laptop computers, with Internet connections, for use in the library. The universities have electronic-resource centers in the library as well. Such centers provide, for student use, a variety of software applications for tasks such as word processing, spreadsheet analysis, database management, desktop publishing, drawing, image processing, and drafting. Output services might include high-quality printing, CD mastering, and image and text scanning. Some schools have facilities for photographic, audio, and video production.

Most libraries have agreements for the exchange of research materials on a regional, statewide, national, or even international basis. If your library does not have the materials you need, ask whether it can borrow them from another library. If it can, ask your librarian for help in initiating an interlibrary loan. Finding the source in a nearby library rather than a faraway one will save considerable time. To discover which libraries own your title, you may search other library catalogs LIBDEX (www.libdex.com/) or Union List of Serials and New Serial Titles, for periodicals.

Researchers regularly use facts and ideas from Internet sources to complement those derived from traditional print sources. Through the World Wide Web, a researcher can read and transfer material from library catalogs and millions of other useful sites, created by professional organizations (e.g., American Chemical Society, government agencies (e.g., Library of Congress, Federal Bureau of Statistics, Islamabad), educational entities (e.g., GC University, LUMS and other public and private universities of Pakistan, National and public libraries like NLP, Islamabad and Quaid-e-Azam Library Lahore, research centers like PCSIR, scholarly projects like Iqbal Cyber Library (www.iqbalcyber library.net/), and individual scholars like Ahmad Shah Patras Bokhari (www.patrasbokhari.com. This site provides bibliographic information sources but also the full texts of documents written by the Patras. Other notable projects like Gutenberg provide full text material of the concerned personality.

Even those who are familiar with the World Wide Web find that using it to do research requires practice and training just as using a library does. Therefore, whenever possible. follow the guidance of an supervisor/teacher, an academic department, or a librarian in selecting Internet sites for research. In addition to online databases available through subscription (see 1.4.6), your library may recommend important Internet sources that were likely selected after careful evaluation and consultation. Check the library's Web site for links to such resources. A librarian might also be able to advise you about sites relevant to your research. Similarly, you may find sites recommended by academic departments and individual supervisor/teachers on Web pages for the department, the supervisor/teacher, or the course.

Your librarian or supervisor/teacher might direct you to a "metaphase" or "gateway" that provides links to other sites. Examples of gateway sites are http://www.gcu.edu.pk/Library/Cat_online.htm.(the URLs shown may change):

Subject Lists

Anatomy	Archaeology	Architecture	Art History	Astronomy
Biochemistry	Biology	Botany	Broadcasting	Business
Chemistry	Classics	Computing Sciences	Current Affairs	Dictionaries
Economics	Education	Encyclopaedias	English	Essay Writing
Finance	French	Genealogy	Geography	Geology
Government	History	International Relations	Internet Guides & Tutorials	Italian
Libraries	Linguistics	Mailing lists Software	Management	Mathematics
Medicine	Periodicals	Philosophy	Physics	Politics
Psychology	Reference Work	Science	Social Sciences	Spanish
Statistics	Zoology

Subject Gateways

ADAM art, design, architecture, media	AERADE aerospace and defence studies	AGRIGATE agriculture, forestry, environment	AHDS arts and humanities	BIOME health and life sciences
Biogate biological sciences	BioRes biological biomedical sciences	Biz/ed business and economics	BUBL all subjects	CAIN conflict studies
ChemDex chemistry	EEVL engineering, mathematics and computing	EdWeb educational reform and info technology	ELDIS development & the environment	GEM (Gateway to Educational Materials) educational resources
Geo-Information Gateway geography, geology, the environment	History historical studies	HUMBUL humanities	iLoveLanguages language-learning & linguistics	InfoLaw law
Internet Directory for Botany botany	LAWLINKS law	Links for Chemists chemistry	The Math Forum Internet Mathematics Library mathematics	MCS media and communication studies
MedHist history of medicine, and allied sciences	Natural Selection resources in the natural world	NetEc economics	NISS Directory of Networked Resources all subjects	PADI Preserving Access to Digital Information
Philosophy Around The Web philosophy studies	Philosophy in Cyberspace philosophy	PhysicsWeb Resources physics	PINAKES lists gateways	psci-com communication of science science in society
PSIgate physical sciences	Psych Web psychology	RDN (Resource Discovery Network) all subjects	Sapling architecture, planning and landscape	SciCentral science
SOSIG social sciences	UK Data Archive soc sciences & humanities data	Voice of the Shuttle arts & humanities	WWW Virtual Library all subjects

Multi-Subject Gateways

Academic Info all subjects	BUBL Link all subjects	DutchESS all subjects	INFOMINE all subjects	MetaMatters (Australia-based gateway) all subjects
NISS Directory of Networked Resources all subjects	PINAKES lists gateways	RDN (Resource Discovery Network) all subjects	Renardus all subjects	Scout Report Archives all subjects
Voice of the Shuttle arts & humanities	WWW Virtual Library all subjects

Courtesy http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/

Argos: is a "peer-reviewed, limited-area search engine of University of Evansville (http://argos.evansville.edu/) designed for students, teachers, and scholars of the "ancient and medieval worlds." An editorial board of specialists reviews and approves each site before it is included in this search engine.

Search tools. If you are working without professional guidance, whether developing a research topic or looking for research sources, use the search tools created to help locate Internet materials. Common ways to conduct searches with these tools are by subject and by keyword. Some search tools, such as Google and Yahoo, vivisimo http://vivisimo.com/ offer hierarchically arranged subject directories through which you can navigate until you find specific topics you wish to explore.

· Google. If you click on the subject "arts" on the directory page for Google, you might receive a list of categories like architecture, art history, classical studies, humanities, and literature. Choosing "humanities" would lead you to a list containing anthropology, history, languages, philosophy, and so on. The subject "history" might offer such selections as "by region," "by time period," and "by topic." If you choose "sixteenth century" from the list of periods, you could receive a choice of two topics: "Reformation" and "Renaissance." Selecting the latter would result in a list of relevant Web sites, including Plague and Public Health in Renaissance Europe (University of Virginia). If you click on the prompt "Similar pages" next to this link, you are directed to other relevant sites, such as The Black Death: Bubonic Plague (Brigham Young University) and Plague (Virginia Polytechnic Inst. and State University.). In ranking a Web site, Google takes into account the number of links there are to the site as well as the importance and quality of the linking sites.

· Yahoo! Similarly, if you select "humanities" among the categories listed in the Yahoo! directory, you might receive a list of such categories as classics, critical theory, cultural studies, history, literature, medical humanities, philosophy, and theology. The selection "medical humanities" would lead you to "biomedical ethics," which would prompt another set of subtopics (abortion issues, animal experimentation, cloning, euthanasia, genetic engineering). Your eventual choice of a specific subject (e.g., human cloning) will yield a listing of documents and files devoted to the subject.

Specific searches. If you know at the outset the exact topic you wish to research, you can perform a keyword search, which produces a listing of files containing the word or words you specify. To avoid long lists containing many irrelevant sites, be as specific as possible in your commands—thus, "human cloning" will yield a shorter, more unified list than "cloning" alone would (see fig. 7). Most search tools offer instructions on how to phrase search requests for the best results. You can often use Boolean and other operators to make searches precise.

Current issues and current events. The Internet is particularly helpful when you want to find materials related to current issues and current events. The Web site NewsDirectory.com (http://www .newsdirectory.com/J provides thousands of links to online news-papers, magazines, television stations, and other media. Examples follow (the URLs shown may change):

Magazines of

Pakistan

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Magazines_in_Pakistan#English)

Book marking and recording the URL. Whenever you discover what seems a useful document or site, be sure to add it to your bookmark or favorites list. In so doing, you can easily return to the source for further information or clarification. If you cannot use a bookmark- perhaps because you share a computer—keep a precise record of the URL.

In any event, you may want to keep a log of all sites you visit, whether or not you initially bookmark them, since a site you originally passed over may seem more useful later.

Recording the date of access. Always make note of the date or dates on which you consult a source. The date of access is important because the material could be revised after you visit the site. The URL and the date of access are items of information you will need for your working bibliography and your list of works cited.

Internet sources among other sources. Whereas many supervisor/teachers encourage using Internet sources, few consider a search of the World Wide Web alone adequate research for most research papers. Supervisor/teacher generally required that other materials, including print publications, be sought. Similarly, e-mail discussion lists and online "chat rooms" are helpful for sharing ideas but are rarely deemed accept-able resources for research papers.

As you discover information and opinions on your topic, you should keep track of sources that you may use for your paper. A record of such sources is called a working bibliography. Your preliminary reading will probably provide the first titles for this list. Other titles will emerge when you consult reference works and the library's central catalog and when you explore the Internet. If you read carefully through the bibliography and notes of each work you consult, more often than not you will discover additional important sources. Your working bibliography will frequently change during your research as you add titles and eliminate those that do not prove useful and as you probe and emphasize some aspects of your subject in preference to others. The working bibliography will eventually evolve into the list of works cited that appears at the end of the research paper.

A computer is particularly useful for compiling the working bibliography. Create a computer file for this purpose, and enter full information about sources into the file as you proceed with your research. Whenever you wish to add new works to the list, to remove works you no longer think helpful, or to correct entries already stored, you retrieve the file, make the changes, and save the revised file for future use. As you research, you can arrange and rearrange your sources however you wish (e.g., in alphabetical order, in chronological order by date of publication, in order of relevance to your topic); you can also divide sources into groups (e.g., those already consulted and those not yet consulted, those most useful and those less so). At any point, you can print the file to review it or to use it for research. Since bibliography files are essential to researching and writing the paper, be certain to save these files and to keep copies of them on paper and on a backup disk.

When you add sources to your working bibliography, be sure you enter all the publication information needed for the works-cited list. The information to be recorded depends on the kind of source used. Following are typical examples of citations for a book, an article in a scholarly journal, a newspaper or magazine article, and an Internet source. The sources you encounter might require more information. See chapter 5 for complete guidelines on compiling the works-cited list of the research paper/work.

Aijazuddin, F.S. Lahore recollected: an album. Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publishers, 2004.

Cohen, Jerome B. “Economic development in

Pakistan

.” Land Economic. 29.1 (1958): 1-12

Besides the data needed for the works-cited list, it is useful to add other information to items in the working bibliography. For example, if you derive a source from a bibliographic work, record where you found the reference, in case you need to recheck it. Always also note the library call number, the network address (URL), or other identifying information required to locate each work.

The following entry in a working bibliography contains not only all the facts needed for the final bibliography (author's name, full title, and relevant publication information) but also information useful for research: the origin of the reference (the electronic database of the MLA International Bibliography) and the call number (808.027 GIB). You will delete reference origins and call numbers when you convert your working bibliography into the list of works cited.

McCann, Sean. Gumshoe America: Hard-Boiled Crime Fiction and the Rise and Fall of New Deal Liberalism. Durham: Duke UP, 2000. [MLA Bib; 808.027 GIB)

Whenever you consult a source, carefully verify the publication facts against your records—even if you have printed out or downloaded the data. Add any missing information that you will need for the works-cited list, and correct any part of your records that does not match the data obtained from the work itself. Recording and verifying all the information about your sources when you first consult them will spare you many last-minute frustrations.

Eventually, you will transform your working bibliography into a works-cited list. If your working bibliography is in a computer file, edit the entries to remove unnecessary information (e.g., origin of reference, call number), arrange them alphabetically by author and title the list "Works Cited" for other kinds of source lists). When you have finished the final draft of your paper, transfer the edited bibliography file to the end of file containing the paper (Read 5.4 as “The list of works cited appears at the end of research paper/work. Begin the list of a new page and number each page, continuing the page numbers of the text. For example, if the text of your research paper ends on page 10, the works-cited list begins on page 11. The page number appears in the upper right –hand corner, half an inch from the top and flush with the right margin. See the following self explanatory example.”

Center the title, Works Cited, an inch from the top of the page. Double-space between the title and the first entry. Begin each entry flush with the left margin; if any entry runs more than one line , indent the subsequent line or lines one-half inch (or five spaces if you are using a typewriter) from the left margin. This format is sometimes called hanging indention, and you can set your word processor to create it automatically for a group of paragraphs. Hanging indention makes alphabetical lists easier to use Double-space the entire list, both between and within entire .Continue the list on as many pages as necessary.) on the format of the file.

System number	010126041
Author – personal	Beg, Muhammad Abdul Jabbar.
Title	Brief lives of the companions of prophet Muhammad : the Saḥābah in Islamic history (including the first four caliphs 632-60AD) / Muhammad Abdul Jabbar Beg.
Edition	2nd (rev.) ed.
Publisher/year	Cambridge : M.A.J. Beg, 2003.
Physical descr.	112 p. : ill. ; 21 cm.
General note	Previous ed.: 2002.
Person as subject	Muḥammad, Prophet, d. 632 -- Companions -- Biography.
Subject	Islam -- History.
Subject	Arabian Peninsula -- History -- To 1500.
Holdings (All)	Details
Shelfmark	YC.2003.a.3897 Request
ISBN	0954188217 (pbk.) : £8.00
Dewey class. no.	297.648 21