CHAPTER 3:

THE MECHANICS OF WRITING

The Mechanics of Writing

Although the scope of compiled work precludes a detailed discussion of grammar, usage, style, and related aspects of writing, this chapter addresses mechanical questions that you will likely encounter in writing research papers.

1. Spelling
2. Punctuation
3. Italics (underlining)
4. Names of persons
5. Numbers
6. Titles of works in the research paper
7. Quotations
8. Capitalization and personal names in languages other than English

3.1. SPELLING

3.1.1. Consistency

Spelling, including hyphenation, should be consistent throughout the research paper—except in quotations, which must retain the spelling of the original, whether correct or incorrect. You can best ensure consistency by always add opting the spelling that your dictio­nary gives first in any entry with variant spellings e.g. The American Heritage College Dictionary, or Random House Webster’s College Dictionary.

3.1.2. Word Division

To save time and avoid possible errors, do not divide words at the ends of lines. If a word you are about to type on a typewriter will not fit on the line, you may leave the line short and begin the word on the next line. The "word-wrap" feature of word-processing programs performs this operation automatically. If you choose to divide a word, consult your dictionary about where the break should occur.

3.1.3. Plurals

The plurals of English words are generally formed by adding the suf­fix -s or -es (laws, taxes), with several exceptions (e.g., children, halves, mice, sons-in-law, bison). The tendency in American English is to form the plurals of words naturalized from other languages in the standard manner. The plurals librettos and formulas are therefore now more common in American English than libretti and formu­lae. But some adopted words, like alumnus and phenomenon, retain their original plurals (alumni, phenomena). Consult a dictionary for guidance. If the dictionary gives more than one plural form for a word (appendixes, appendices), use the first listed. (See 3.2.7 for plurals of letters and for possessive forms of plurals.)

3.1.4. Foreign Words

If you quote material in a foreign language, * reproduce all accents and other marks exactly as they appear in the original (ecole, pieta, tete, lecon, Fdhre, ado). If you need marks that are not avail-able on your word processor or typewriter, write them in by hand. On the use of foreign words in an English text.

3.2. PUNCTUATION

3.2.1. The Purpose of Punctuation

The primary purpose of punctuation is to ensure the clarity and readability of writing. Punctuation clarifies sentence structure, sepa­rating some words and grouping others. It adds meaning to written words and guides the understanding of readers as they move through sentences. The rules set forth here cover many of the situations you will encounter in writing research papers..

3.2.2. Commas

a. Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, nor, or, yet, or so) joining independent clauses in a sentence.

Senate passed the bill, and the president signed it into law.

The poem is ironic, for the poet's meaning contrasts with her words.

Take along a tape recorder, or you risk misquoting your interviewee.

Other wars were longer, but few were as costly in human lives.

b. Use commas to separate words, phrases, and clauses in a series.

WORDS

Boccaccio's tales have inspired plays, films, operas, and paintings.

PHRASES

Alfred the Great established a system of fortified towns, reorganized the military forces, and built a fleet of warships.

CLAUSES

In the Great Depression, millions lost their jobs, businesses failed, and charitable institutions closed their doors.

But use semicolons when items in a series have internal commas.

Pollsters focused their efforts on Columbus, Ohio; Des Moines, Iowa; and Saint    Louis, Missouri.

c. Use a comma between coordinate adjectives—that is, adjectives that separately modify the same noun.

Critics praise the novel's unaffected, unadorned style. (The adjectives unaffected and unadorned each modify style.)

The new regime imposed harsh, repressive laws. (The adjectives harsh and repressive each modify laws.)

But note:

Most of the characters are average city dwellers. (The adjective average modifies city dwellers.)

A famous photo shows Marianne Moore in a black tricornered hat. (The adjective black modifies tricornered hat.)

d. Use commas to set off a parenthetical comment, or an aside, if it is brief and closely related to the rest of the sentence. (For punctua­tion of longer, more intrusive, or more complex parenthetical ele­ments, see 3.2.5.)

The Tudors, for example, ruled for over a century.

The vernacular, after all, was the language of everyday life.

Tonight's performance, I'm sorry to say, has been canceled.

e. Use commas to set off a nonrestrictive modifier—that is, a modifier that is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. A nonrestrictive modifier, unlike a restrictive one, could be dropped without chang­ing the main sense of the sentence. Modifiers in the following three categories are either nonrestrictive or restrictive. (For the use of parentheses and dashes around complex nonrestrictive modifiers, see 3.2.5b.)

Words in apposition

NONRESTRICTIVE

The color of the costume, blue, acquires symbolic meaning in the story.

The theme song of the campaign, "Happy Days Are Here Again," is indelibly associated with the Great Depression.

Isabel Allende, the Chilean novelist, will appear at the arts forum tonight.

RESTRICTIVE

The color blue acquires symbolic meaning in the story.

The campaign song "Happy Days Are Here Again" is indelibly associated with the Great Depression.

The Chilean novelist Isabel Allende will appear at the arts forum tonight.

Clauses that begin with who, whom, whose, which, and that

NONRESTRICTIVE

Scientists, who must observe standards of objectivity in their work, can contribute usefully to public-policy debates.

The Italian sonnet, which is exemplified in Petrarch's Canzoniere, developed into the English sonnet.

RESTRICTIVE

Scientists who receive the Nobel Prize sometimes contribute usefully to public-policy debates.

The sonnet that is exemplified in Petrarch's Canzoniere developed into the English       sonnet.

Note that some writers prefer to use which to introduce nonrestric­tive clauses and that to introduce restrictive clauses.

Adverbial phrases and clauses

NONRESTRICTIVE

The novel takes place in China, where many languages are spoken.

The ending is sad, as the narrator hinted it would be.

RESTRICTIVE

The novel takes place in a land where many languages are spoken.

The ending is as the narrator hinted it would be.

f. Use a comma after a long introductory phrase or clause.

PHRASE

After years of anxiety over the family's finances, Linda Loman looks forward to the day the mortgage will be paid off.

CLAUSE

Although she was virtually unknown in her day, scholars have come to recognize the originality of her work.

g. Use commas to set off alternative or contrasting phrases.

The king remains a tragic figure, despite his appalling actions.

A determined, even obsessed, taxi driver tells of his ambitions.

It is Julio, not his mother, who sets the plot in motion.

But note:

Several cooperative but autonomous republics were formed. (The conjunction but links cooperative and autonomous, making a comma inappropriate.)

h. Do not use a comma between subject and verb.

Many of the characters who dominate the early chapters and then disappear [no comma] are portraits of the author's friends.

i. Do not use a comma between verb and object.

The agent reported to the headquarters staff [no comma] that the documents had been traced to an underground garage.

j. Do not use a comma between the parts of a compound subject, compound object, or compound verb.

COMPOUND SUBJECT

A dozen wooden chairs (no comma] and a window that admits a shaft of light complete the stage setting.

COMPOUND OBJECT

Ptolemy devised a system of astronomy accepted until the sixteenth century [no comma] and a scientific approach to the study of geography.

COMPOUND VERB

He composed several successful symphonies [no comma] but won the most fame for his witticisms.

k. Do not use a comma between two parallel subordinate elements.

Nona thought of the crew members, who worked from dawn to dusk [no comma] but   whose lives seemed free and joyful.

She broadens her analysis by exploring the tragic elements of the play [no comma] and by integrating the hunting motif with the themes of death and resurrection.

The farmhouse stood on top of a hill [no comma] and just beyond the Silver Creek bridge.

l. Use a comma in a date whose order is month, day, and year. If such a date comes in the middle of a sentence, include a comma after the year.

Martin Luther King, Jr., was born on January 15, 1929, and died on April 4, 1968.

But commas are not used with dates whose order is day, month, and year.

Martin Luther King, Jr., was born on 15 January 1929 and died on 4 April 1968.

m. Do not use a comma between a month and a year or between a season and a year.

The events of July 1789 are as familiar to the French as those of July 1776 are   to   Americans.

I passed my oral exams in spring 1999.

See 3.7.7 for commas with quotations. 3.2.3. Semicolons

3.2.3.Semicolons

a.Use a semicolon between independent clauses not linked by a conjunction.

The coat is tattered beyond repair; still, Akaky hopes the tailor can mend it.

b. Use semicolons between items in a series when the items con­tain commas.

Present at the symposium were Henri Guillaume, the art critic; Sam Brown, the   Daily Tribune reporter; and Maria Rosa, the conceptual artist.

3.2.4. Colons

The colon is used between two parts of a sentence when the first part creates a sense of anticipation about what follows in the second. Leave only one space after a colon, not two.

a. Use a colon to introduce a list, an elaboration of what was just said, or the formal expression of a rule or principle.

LIST

The reading list includes three Latin American novels: The Death of Artemio Cruz,    One Hundred Years of Solitude, and The Green House.

ELABORATION

The plot is founded on deception: the three main characters have secret identities.

RULE OR PRINCIPLE

Many books would be briefer if their authors followed the logical principle known as Occam's razor: Explanations should not be multiplied unnecessarily. (A rule or principle after a colon should begin with a capital letter.) But do not use a colon before a list if the list is grammatically essen­tial to the introductory wording.

The novels on the reading list include The Death of Artemio Cruz, One Hundred   Years of Solitude, and The Green House. (The list is the object of the verb include.)

The reading list includes such novels as The Death of Artemio Cruz, One Hundred Years of Solitude, and The Green House. (The list continues the expression such ... as.)

b.Use a colon to introduce a quotation that is independent from the structure of the main sentence.

In The Awakening, Mme Ratignolle exhorts Robert Lebrun to stop flirting with  Edna: "She is not one of us; she is not like us."

A quotation that is integral to the sentence structure is generally pre-ceded by no punctuation or, if a verb of saying (says, exclaims,

notes, writes) introduces the quotation, by a comma. A colon is used after a verb of saying, however, if the verb introduces certain kinds of formal literary quotations, such as long quotations set off from the main text (see 3.7.2—4, 3.7.7).

3.2.5. Dashes and Parentheses

Dashes make a sharper break in the continuity of the sentence than commas do, and parentheses make a still sharper one. To indicate a dash in typing, use two hyphens, with no space before, between, or after. (Some word processors have a dash, and you may use it instead of hyphens.) Your writing will be smoother and more read-able if you use dashes and parentheses sparingly. Limit the number of dashes in a sentence to two paired dashes or one unpaired dash.

a. Use dashes or parentheses to enclose a sentence element that interrupts the train of thought.

Soaring in a balloon--inventors first performed this feat in 1783 --is a way to recapture the  wonder that early aviators must have felt.

 The "hero" of the play (the townspeople see him as heroic, but he is the focus of the author's satire) introduces himself as a veteran of the war.

b. Use dashes or parentheses to set off a parenthetical element that contains a comma and that might be misread if set off with commas.

       The colors of the costume--blue, scarlet, and yellow--acquire symbolic meaning in the story.

The Italian sonnet (which is exemplified in Petrarch's Canzoniere, along with other kinds of poems) developed into the English sonnet.

c. Use a dash to introduce words that summarize a preceding series.

Ruthlessness and acute sensitivity, greed and compassion--the main character's        contradictory qualities prevent any simple interpretation of the film.

A dash may also be used instead of a colon to introduce a list or an elaboration of what was just said (see 3.2.4a).

3.2.6. Hyphens

Compound words of all types—nouns, verbs, adjectives, and so on—are written as separate words (hard drive, hard labor), with hyphens (hard-and-fast, hard-boiled), and as single words (hardcover, hardheaded). The dictionary shows how to write many compounds. A compound not in the dictionary should usually be written as sepa­rate words unless a hyphen is needed to prevent readers from mis­understanding the relation between the words. Following are some rules to help you decide whether you need a hyphen in compounds and other terms that may not appear in the dictionary.

a. Use a hyphen in a compound adjective beginning with an adverb such as better, best, ill, lower, little, or well when the adjec­tive precedes a noun.

better-prepared ambassador best-known work

ill-informed reporter

lower-priced tickets

well-dressed announcer

But do not use a hyphen when the compound adjective comes after the noun it modifies.

The ambassador was better prepared than the other delegates.

b. Do not use a hyphen in a compound adjective beginning with an adverb ending in

-ly or with too, very, or much.

thoughtfully presented thesis

very contrived plot

too hasty judgment

much maligned performer

c. Use a hyphen in a compound adjective ending with the present participle (e.g., loving) or the past participle (e.g., inspired) of a verb when the adjective precedes a noun.

sports-loving throng

fear-inspired loyalty

hate-filled speech

d. Use a hyphen in a compound adjective formed by a number and a noun when the adjective precedes a noun.

      twelfth-floor apartment

      second-semester courses

      early-thirteenth-century architecture

e. Use hyphens in other compound adjectives before nouns to pre-vent misreading.

       continuing-education program (The hyphen indicates that the term refers to a program of continuing education and not to an education program that is continuing.)

       Portuguese-language student (The hyphen makes it clear that the term refers to a   student who is studying Portuguese and not to a language student who is Portuguese.)

f. Do not use hyphens in familiar unhyphenated compound terms, such as social security tax, high school reunion, liberal arts, and show business, when they appear before nouns as modifiers.

social security tax

high school reunion

liberal arts curriculum

show business debut

g. Use hyphens to join coequal nouns.

writer-critic

scholar-athlete

author-chef

But do not use a hyphen in a pair of nouns in which the first noun modifies the second.

father figure

opera lover

h. In general, do not use hyphens after prefixes (e.g., anti-, co-, multi-, non-, over-. post-, pre-, re-, semi-, sub-, un-, under-).

But sometimes a hyphen is called for after a prefix:

post-Victorian (Use a hyphen before a capital letter.)

re-cover (The hyphen distinguishes this verb, meaning "cover again,"

from recover, meaning "get back" or "recuperate.")

anti-icing (Without the hyphen, the doubled vowel would stake the term hard to recognize.)

3.2.7. Apostrophes

A principal function of apostrophes is to indicate possession. They are also used to form contractions (can't, wouldn't), which are rarely acceptable in research papers, and the plurals of the letters of the alphabet (p's and q's, three A's).

a. To form the possessive of a singular noun, add an apostrophe and an s.

the zebra's stripes

a poem's meter

the dean's list

b. To form the possessive of a plural noun ending in s, add only an apostrophe.

photographers^' props

firefighters' trucks

tourists' luggage

      c. To form the possessive of an irregular plural noun not ending in s, add an   apostrophe and an s.

children's entertainment

the media's role

women's studies

d. To form the possessive of nouns in a series, add a single apos­trophe and an s if the ownership is shared.

Palmer and Colton's book on European history

Fred, Lucinda, and Nan's house

But if the ownership is separate, place an apostrophe and an s after each noun.

Fred's, Lucinda's, and Nan's coats

e. To form the possessive of any singular proper noun, add an apostrophe and an s.

Venus's beauty

Dickens's reputation

Descartes's philosophy

Marx's precepts

f. To form the possessive of a plural proper noun, add only an apostrophe.

the Vanderbilts' estate

the Dickenses^' economic woes

g. Do not use an apostrophe to form the plural of an abbreviation or a number.

PhDs          1990s

MAs          fours

VCRs           SAT score in the 1400s

3.2.8. Quotation Marks

a. Place quotation marks around a word or phrase given in a spe­cial sense or purposefully misused.

A silver dome concealed the robot's "brain."

Their "friend" brought about their downfall.

If introduced unnecessarily, this device can make writing heavy-handed. Quotation marks are not needed after so-called.

Their so-called friend brought about their downfall.

b. Use quotation marks for a translation of a foreign word or phrase.

Et ux., a legal abbreviation for the Latin et uxor, means ^"and wife.^"

The first idiomatic Spanish expression I learned was irse todo en humo ("to go up in smoke^").

You may use single quotation marks for a translation that follows the original directly, without intervening words or punctuation.

      The word text derives from the Latin verb texere ^'to weave.'

3.2.9. Square Brackets

Use square brackets around a parenthesis within a parenthesis, so that the levels of subordination can be easily distinguished. Insert square brackets by hand if they are not available on your word processor or typewriter.

The sect known as the Jansenists (after Cornelius Jansen [1585-1638]) faced opposition  from both the king and the pope.

The labors of Heracles (Hercules) included the slaying of the Nemean lion (so called because Hera [Juno] sent it to destroy the Nemean plain).

3.2.10. Slashes

The slash, or diagonal, is rarely necessary in formal prose. Other than in quotations of poetry (see 3.7.3), the slash has a place mainly between two terms paired as opposites or alternatives and used together as a noun.

The writer discussed how fundamental oppositions like good/evil, East/West, and   aged/young affect the way cultures view historical events.

But use a hyphen when such a compound precedes and modifies a noun.

nature-nurture conflict

either-or situation

East-West relations

3.2.11. Periods, Question Marks, and Exclamation Points

A sentence can end with a period, a question mark, or an exclama­tion point. Periods end declarative sentences. (For the use of periods with ellipsis points, see 3.7.5.) Question marks follow interrogative sentences. Except in direct quotation, avoid exclamation points in research writing.

Place a question mark inside a closing quotation mark if the quoted passage is a question. Place a question mark outside if the quotation ends a sentence that is a question. If a question mark occurs where a comma or period would normally be required, omit the comma or period. Note the use of the question mark and other punctuation marks in the following sentences:

Whitman asks, "Have you felt so proud to get at the meaning of poems?^" Where does Whitman speak of "the meaning of poems^"?

"Have you felt so proud to get at the meaning of poems?" Whitman asks.

3.2.12. Spacing after Concluding Punctuation Marks

Publications in the United States today usually have the same spac­ing after a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point as between words on the same line. Since word processors make avail-able the same fonts used by typesetters for printed works, many writ­ers, influenced by the look of typeset publications, now leave only one space after a concluding punctuation mark. In addition, most publishers' guidelines for preparing a manuscript on disk ask profes­sional authors to type only the spaces that are to appear in print.

Because it is increasingly common for papers and manuscripts to be prepared with a single space after all concluding punctuation marks, this spacing is shown in the examples in this handbook. As a practical matter, however, there is nothing wrong with using two spaces after concluding punctuation marks unless an instructor requests that you do otherwise. Whichever spacing you choose, be sure to use it consistently in all parts of your paper—the works-cited list as well as the main text. By contrast, internal punctuation marks, such as a colon, a comma, and a semicolon, should always be fol­lowed by one space.

3.3. ITALICS (UNDERLINING)

Italic is a style of type in which the characters slant to the right (Ca­sablanca). In research papers and manuscripts submitted for pub­lication, words that would be italicized in print are best underlined.

Casablanca

Most word-processing programs and computer printers permit the reproduction of italic type. In material that will be graded, edited, or typeset, however, the type style of every letter and punctuation mark must be easily recognizable. Italic type is sometimes not distinctive enough for this purpose, and you can avoid ambiguity by using under-lining when you intend italics. If you wish to use italics rather than underlining, check your instructor's preferences. When preparing a manuscript for electronic publication, consult your editor or instruc­tor on how to represent italicization.

In electronic environments that do not permit underlining, it is common to place one underline before and after each word or group of words that would be italicized in print.

_Casablanca_

_Life Is a Dream_

The rest of this section discusses using italics for words and letters referred to as words and letters (3.3.1), foreign words in an English text (3.3.2), and emphasis (3.3.3). (See 3.6.2 for italicizing of titles.)

3.3.1. Words and Letters Referred to as Words and Letters

Underline words and letters that are referred to as words and letters.

Shaw spelled Shakespeare without the final e.

The word albatross probably derives from the Spanish and Portuguese word alcatraz.

3.3.2. Foreign Words in an English Text

In general, underline foreign words used in an English text.

The Renaissance courtier was expected to display sprezzatura, or nonchalance, in the face of   adversity.

The numerous exceptions to this rule include quotations entirely in another language ("Julius Caesar said, 'Vent, vidi, vici'"); non-English titles of short works (poems, short stories, essays, articles), which are placed in quotation marks and not underlined ("El sueflo," the title of a poem by Quevedo); proper names (Marguerite de Navarre); and foreign words anglicized through frequent use. Since American English rapidly naturalizes words, use a dictionary to decide whether a foreign expression requires italics. Following are some adopted foreign words, abbreviations, and phrases commonly not underlined:

3.3.3. Emphasis

Italics for emphasis ("Booth does concede, however ...") is a device that rapidly becomes ineffective. It is rarely appropriate in research writing.

3.4. NAMES OF PERSONS

3.4.1. First and Subsequent Uses of Names

In general, the first time you use a person's name in the text of your research paper. state it fully and accurately, exactly as it appears in your source.

Arthur George Rust, Jr.

Victoria M. Sackville-West

Do not change Arthur George Rust, Jr., to Arthur George Rust, for example, or drop the hyphen in Victoria M. Sackville-West. In subse­quent references to the person, you may give the last name only (Rust, Sackville-West)—unless, of course, you refer to two or more persons with the same last name-or you may give the most com­mon form of the name (e.g., Garcilaso for Garcilaso de la Vega). In casual references to the very famous—say, Mozart, Shakespeare, or Michelangelo—it is not necessary to give the full name initially.

3.4.2. Titles of Persons

In general, do not use formal titles (Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms., Dr., Pro­fessor, Reverend) in referring to men or women, living or dead (Churchill, not Mr. Churchill: Einstein, not Professor Einstein; Hess, not Dame Myra; Montagu, not Lady Montagu). A few women in his­tory are traditionally known by their titles as married women (e.g., Mrs. Humphry Ward, Mme de Stael). Treat other women's names the same as men's.

FIRST USE                                   SUBSEQUENT USES

Emily Dickinson                              Dickinson (not Miss Dickinson)

Harriet Beecher Stowe                   Stowe (not Mrs. Stowe)

Margaret Mead                              Mead (not Ms. Mead)       

The appropriate way to refer to persons with titles of nobility can vary. For example, the full name and title of Henry Howard, earl of Surrey, should be given at first mention, and thereafter Surrey alone may be used. In contrast, for Benjamin Disraeli, first earl of Bea­consfield, it is sufficient to give Benjamin Disraeli initially and Dis­raeli subsequently. Follow the example of your sources in citing titles of nobility.

3.4.3. Names of Authors and Fictional Characters

It is common and acceptable to use simplified names of famous authors (Vergil for Publius Vergilius Maro, Dante for Dante Ali­ghieri). Also acceptable are pseudonyms of authors.

Voltaire (Francois-Marie Arouet)

George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans)

Mark Twain (Samuel Clemens)

3.5. NUMBERS

3.5.1. Arabic Numerals

Although there are still a few well-established uses for roman numerals (see 3.5.7), virtually all numbers not spelled out are com­monly represented today by arabic numerals. If your keyboard does not have the number 1, use a small letter el (1), not capital I, for the arabic numeral. If your keyboard has the number 1, do not substitute the small el.

3.5.2. Use of Words or Numerals

If you are writing about literature or another subject that involves infrequent use of numbers, you may spell out numbers written in one or two words and represent other numbers by numerals (one, thirty-six, ninety-nine, one hundred, fifteen hundred, two thousand, three million, but 2 1/2, 101, 137, 1,275). To form the plural of a spelled-out

number, treat the word like an ordinary noun (sixes, sevens).

If your project is one that calls for frequent use of numbers—say, a paper on a scientific subject or a study of statistical findings—use numerals for all numbers that precede technical units of measure­ment (16 amperes, 5 milliliters). In such a project, also use numerals for numbers that are presented together and that refer to similar things, such as in comparisons or reports of experimental data. Spell out other numbers if they can be written in one or two words. In the following example of statistical writing, neither "ten years" nor "six-state region" is presented with related figures, so the numbers are spelled out, unlike the other numbers in the sentence.

In the ten years covered by the study, the number of participating institutions in the                           United States doubled, reaching 90, and membership in the six-state region rose from 4 to 15.

But do not begin a sentence with a numeral.

Nineteen ninety-two began with several good omens.

Except at the beginning of a sentence, always use numerals in the following instances:

WITH ABBREVIATIONS OR SYMBOLS

6 kg..                     4:20 p.m.                      3%

8 KB                      Rs.9                             2”

IN ADDRESSES

97-K Model Town Extension, Lahore.

IN DATES

1 April 2001

April 1, 2001

IN DECIMAL FRACTIONS

8.3

IN PAGE REFERENCES

page 7

For large numbers, you may use a combination of numerals and words.  4.5 million

Express related numbers in the same style.

only 5 of the 250 delegates

exactly 3 automobiles and 129 trucks

from 1 billion to 1.2 billion

3.5.3. Commas in Numbers

Commas are usually placed between the third and fourth digits from the right, the sixth and seventh, and so on.

1,000

20,000

7,654,321

Following are some of the exceptions to this practice:

PAGE AND LINE NUMBERS on page 1014

ADDRESSES

3 Lower Mall Lahore.54000

FOUR-DIGIT YEAR NUMBERS in 1999

But commas are added in year numbers of five or more figures. in 20,000 BC

3.5.4. Percentages and Amounts of Money

Treat percentages and amounts of money like other numbers: use numerals with the appropriate symbols.

1%                         $5.35                          

45%                       $35

100%                     $2,000

In discussions involving infrequent use of numbers, you may spell out a percentage or an amount of money if you can do so in three words or fewer (five dollars, forty-five percent, two thousand dollars, sixty-eight cents). Do not combine spelled forms of numbers with symbols.

3.5.5. Dates and Times of the Day

Be consistent in writing dates: use either the day-month-year style (22 July 1999) or the month-day-year style ( July 22, 1999) but not both. (If you begin with the month, be sure to add a comma after the day and also after the year, unless another punctuation mark goes there, such as a period or a question mark.) Do not use a comma between month and year (August 1998).

Spell out centuries in lowercase letters.

the twentieth century

Hyphenate centuries when they are used as adjectives before nouns.

eighteenth-century thought

nineteenth- and twentieth-century literature

Decades are usually written out without capitalization (the nineties), but it is acceptable to express them in figures (the 1990s, the '60s). Whichever form you use, be consistent.

The abbreviation BC follows the year, but AD precedes it.

19 BC       

AD 576

Instead of BC and AD, some writers prefer to use BCE, "before the common era," and CE, "common era," both of which follow the year.

Numerals are used to indicate most times of the day (2:00 p.m., the 6:20 flight). Exceptions include time expressed in quarter and half hours and in hours followed by o'clock.

a quarter to twelve

half past ten

five o^'clock

3.5.6. Inclusive Numbers

In a range of numbers, give the second number in full for numbers through ninety-nine.

2-3                         21-48

10-12                     89-99

For larger numbers, give only the last two digits of the second num­ber, unless more are necessary.

96-101                   923-1,003

103-04                   1,003-05

395-401                 1,608-774       

In a range of years beginning in AD 1000 or later, omit the first two digits of the second year if they are the same as the first two digits of the first year. Otherwise, write both years in full.

2000-03    

1898-1901

In a range of years beginning from AD 1 through 999, follow the rules for inclusive numbers in general.

73-76

600-62

Do not abbreviate ranges of years that begin before AD 1.

748-742 BC

143 BC-AD 149

3.5.7. Roman Numerals

Use capital roman numerals for the primary divisions of an outline and after the names of individuals in a series.

Elizabeth II

John Paul II

Use lowercase roman numerals for citing pages of a book that are so numbered (e.g., the pages in a preface). Write out inclusive roman numerals in full: xxv–xxvi, xlvi–xlix. Your instructor may prefer that you use roman numerals to designate acts and scenes of plays

3.6. TITLES OF WORKS IN THE RESEARCH PAPER

3.6.1. Capitalization and Punctuation

Whenever you cite the title of a published work in your research paper, take the title from the title page, not from the cover or from a running head at the top of a page. Do not reproduce any unusual typographic characteristics, such as special capitalization or lower-casing of all letters. A title page may present a title designed like one of the following examples:

Modernism and Negritude

These titles should appear in a research paper as follows:

Modernism and Negritude

Bernard Berenson: The Making of a Connoisseur

Turner's Early Sketchbooks

The rules for capitalizing titles are strict. In a title or a sub-title, capitalize the first word, the last word, and all principal words, including those that follow hyphens in compound terms. Therefore, capitalize the following parts of speech:

·        Nouns (e.g., flowers and Europe, as in The Flowers of Europe)

·        Pronouns (e.g., our, as in Save Our Children; that, as in The Mouse That Roared)

·        Verbs (e.g., watches, as in America Watches Television; is, as in What Is Literature?)

·        Adjectives (e.g., ugly, as in The Ugly Duckling; that, as in Who Said That Phrase?)

·        Adverbs (e.g., slightly, as in Only Slightly Corrupt; down, as in Go Dow)

Do not capitalize the following parts of speech when they fall in the middle of a title:

·        Articles (a, an, the, as in Under the Bamboo Tree)

·        Prepositions (e.g., against, between, in, of, to, as in The Merchant of Ve